General Anesthetics

 

General aesthetics

General anesthetics are CNS depressants that cause partial or complete loss of sensation, consciousness, or pain. The effect is reversible and is commonly used to induce anesthesia during painful surgeries. 

General anesthetics bring about descending denervation of the central nervous system, beginning with the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and finally the spinal cord.

Stages of general anesthesia

• Stage I (Stage of analgesia)

It is the period from the start of anesthetic administration to loss of consciousness. The patient progressively loses pain. This stage is also called the stage of analgesia.

• Stage II (Stage of Delirium)

This period extends from the loss of consciousness through a stage of irregular and specific breathing to the re-establishment of regular breathing. Respiration is normal. The patient may laugh, vomit, or struggle and hence it is called the excitement phase or stage.

• Stage III (Stage of surgical anesthesia)

In this phase, excitability disappears and the skeletal muscles relax. Most of the surgeries are done at this stage.

• Stage IV (Stage of medullary depression)

Overdose of the anesthetic may bring the patient to this stage. At this stage, respiratory and circulatory disorders occur.

An ideal characteristic of aesthetics.

1. It should be inert, potent, and non-flammable.

2. It should be economical.

3. It should not produce nausea, vomiting, and severe hypotension.

4. It should be stable in heat, light, and alkalis.

Classification of general aesthetics

Volatile inhalation general anesthetics:

They are administered by inhalation and further distributed subcutaneously:

1. Gas:

2. Liquids:

Non-volatile or intravenous anesthetics:

They are unstable at room temperature and are administered via the IV route.

1. Barbiturates:

2. Non-barbiturates:

These are used to produce rapid unconsciousness for surgical and basal anesthesia. These drugs induce anesthesia during surgery which is then maintained by inhalation anesthetics and used in every operation in the body.

"leadership and it's styles"

Leadership:

"Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of people to influence and guide followers or a group of an organization."

Role of leadership:

• Decision-making

• Visionary

• Team-builder

• Communicators

• Motivation

• Problem-solving 

• Take authority

• Powerful person

• Critical thinker

Importance

The importance of leadership:

• Decision-making

• Motivation and inspiration

• Guidance and direction

• Team cohesion

• Talent development 

Leadership Styles:

• Distributed leadership

Distributed leadership is a leadership approach where authority and decision-making responsibility are shared among individuals within an organization and a team.

• Autocratic leadership

Autocratic leaders usually make choices based on their ideas and judgments and rarely accept advice from followers. Autocratic leadership involves absolute, authoritarian control over a group (verywellmind.com).

• Democratic leadership

Democratic leadership is a leadership style in which members of the group participate in the decision-making process (verywellmind.com).

• Bureaucratic leadership

Bureaucratic leadership is a management style that follows a hierarchical structure (HR-glossary).

• Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership is a leadership style where leaders inspire and motivate their followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes and exceed their expectations.

• Instructional leadership

Instructional leadership refers to the role of school leaders in supporting and guiding teaching and learning within their institutions.

• Situational leadership

Situational leadership is a leadership style in which a leader adapts his or her leadership style to the current work environment and/or the needs of the team (indeed.com).

• Transformational leadership 

Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems (langston.edu.com).

• Servant leadership

Servant leadership is a leadership style that prioritizes the growth, well-being, and empowerment of employees (shrm.org).

• Laissez's fair leadership:

Laissez-faire leadership, also known as delegative leadership, is a type of leadership style in which leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make decisions (verywellind.com). Researchers have found that this is generally the leadership style that leads to the lowest productivity (verywellmind.com).

"The Scientific Methods in chemistry"

 Scientific method

Scientists find answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a method called the scientific method in chemistry. It includes:

Step 1: Make observations

Observations can be qualitative research or quantitative research. Qualitative observations describe characteristics or events in ways that do not rely on numbers. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: the outside air temperature is colder during winter, table salt is a crystalline solid, sulfur crystals are yellow, and by dissolving a penny in dilute nitric acid, blue solution, and brown gas are formed. Quantitative observations are measurements that, by definition, contain both numerical and numerical units. Examples of quantitative observations include the following: the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21° Celsius and 35.9 grams of table salt—whose chemical name is sodium chloride-solve in 100 grams of water at 20° Celsius. For the dinosaur extinction question, the first observation was quantitative: Iridium concentrations in sediments from 66 million years ago were 20-160 times higher than normal.

Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis

A.    The Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately facing the Sun on one side.

B.     The sun revolves around the earth every 24 hours.

Step 3: Design and perform experiments

After formulating a hypothesis, scientists conduct experiments to test its validity. Experiments are systematic observations or measurements, preferably conducted under controlled conditions—that is, conditions under which one variable is changed.

Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis

A properly designed and executed experiment enables the scientist to determine whether the original hypothesis is correct. In that case, he can go to step 5.

Step 5: Development in law and/or theory

More experimental data are then collected and analyzed, at which point a scientist may begin to think that the results are sufficiently reproducible theories in every field of chemistry.

"Physical and Chemical Changes"

 

Physical Changes (www.quia.com)

As the ice cube melts, its shape changes as it gains the ability to flow. However, its structure does not change. Molting is an example of a physical change. A physical change is a change in a sample of matter in which some of the properties of the matter change, but the identity of the matter remains unchanged. Physiological changes can be further classified as irreversible or irreversible. A melted ice cube can refreeze, so melting is a reversible physical change. Physiological changes that involve a change of state are all reversible. Other changes of the state include evaporation, freezing (liquid to solid), and condensation (www.quia.com). Dissolution is also a reversible physical change. When a salt dissolves in water, the salt is said to have entered the liquid state. The salt can be recovered by boiling the water, leaving the salt behind.

Chemical changes

An element's chemical properties describe its ability to undergo specific chemical changes. One of the chemical properties of iron is its ability to combine with oxygen to form iron oxide, the chemical name for rust. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. When one substance changes into another, it's called a chemical reaction. There's a silver-gray element called zinc (Zn) that can be ground into powder.

Zinc Sulfur → Zinc (Sulfide)

ZnS→ZnS

The substances to the left of the arrow in a chemical equation are called reactants. A reactant is a substance that is present at the beginning of a chemical reaction (such as zinc and sulfur). The substance to the right of the arrow is called a product, and a product is a substance that is present at the end of a chemical reaction. A color change occurs during the reaction. The color change occurs after the reaction. These are called chemical changes.

"Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things"

Chemical Composition of Ordinary Things (https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CH....):

•  Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with the structure, composition, properties, and reactive characteristics of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. 

• Matter is defined as any substance that has mass. It’s important to distinguish here between weight and mass. Weight is the result of the pull of gravity on an object. On the Moon, an object will weigh less than the same object on Earth because the pull of gravity is less on the Moon. 

• The mass of an object, however, is an inherent property of that object and does not change, regardless of location, or gravitational pull. It is a property that is solely dependent on the quantity of matter within the object. Contemporary theories suggest that matter is composed of atoms. 

• Atoms themselves are constructed from neutrons, protons, and electrons, along with an ever-increasing array of other subatomic particles. We will focus on the neutron, a particle having no charge, the proton, which carries a positive charge, and the electron, which has a negative charge. Atoms are incredibly small. To give you an idea of the size of an atom, a single copper penny contains approximately 28,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms (that’s 28 sextillions). Because atoms and subatomic particles are so small, their mass is not readily measured using pounds, ounces, grams, or any other scale that we would use on larger objects. Instead, the mass of atoms and subatomic particles is measured using atomic mass units (abbreviated amu).

•  The atomic mass unit is based on a scale that relates the mass of different types of atoms to each other (using the most common form of the element carbon atom as a standard). The AMU scale gives us a convenient means to describe the masses of individual atoms and to do quantitative measurements.